23 Ways To Speed Up Windows XP

Since defragging the disk won't do much to improve Windows XP performance, here are 23 suggestions that will. Each can enhance the performance and reliability of your customers' PCs. Best of all, most of them will cost you nothing.
1.) To decrease a system's boot time and increase system performance, use the money you save by not buying defragmentation software -- the built-in Windows defragmenter works just fine -- and instead equip the computer with an Ultra-133 or Serial ATA hard drive with 8-MB cache buffer.

2.) If a PC has less than 512 MB of RAM, add more memory. This is a relatively inexpensive and easy upgrade that can dramatically improve system performance.

3.) Ensure that Windows XP is utilizing the NTFS file system. If you're not sure, here's how to check: First, double-click the My Computer icon, right-click on the C: Drive, then select Properties. Next, examine the File System type; if it says FAT32, then back-up any important data. Next, click Start, click Run, type CMD, and then click OK. At the prompt, type CONVERT C: /FS:NTFS and press the Enter key. This process may take a while; it's important that the computer be uninterrupted and virus-free. The file system used by the bootable drive will be either FAT32 or NTFS. I highly recommend NTFS for its superior security, reliability, and efficiency with larger disk drives.

4.) Disable file indexing. The indexing service extracts information from documents and other files on the hard drive and creates a "searchable keyword index." As you can imagine, this process can be quite taxing on any system.

The idea is that the user can search for a word, phrase, or property inside a document, should they have hundreds or thousands of documents and not know the file name of the document they want. Windows XP's built-in search functionality can still perform these kinds of searches without the Indexing service. It just takes longer. The OS has to open each file at the time of the request to help find what the user is looking for.

Most people never need this feature of search. Those who do are typically in a large corporate environment where thousands of documents are located on at least one server. But if you're a typical system builder, most of your clients are small and medium businesses. And if your clients have no need for this search feature, I recommend disabling it.

Here's how: First, double-click the My Computer icon. Next, right-click on the C: Drive, then select Properties. Uncheck "Allow Indexing Service to index this disk for fast file searching." Next, apply changes to "C: subfolders and files," and click OK. If a warning or error message appears (such as "Access is denied"), click the Ignore All button.

5.) Update the PC's video and motherboard chipset drivers. Also, update and configure the BIOS. For more information on how to configure your BIOS properly, see this article on my site.

6.) Empty the Windows Prefetch folder every three months or so. Windows XP can "prefetch" portions of data and applications that are used frequently. This makes processes appear to load faster when called upon by the user. That's fine. But over time, the prefetch folder may become overloaded with references to files and applications no longer in use. When that happens, Windows XP is wasting time, and slowing system performance, by pre-loading them. Nothing critical is in this folder, and the entire contents are safe to delete.

7.) Once a month, run a disk cleanup. Here's how: Double-click the My Computer icon. Then right-click on the C: drive and select Properties. Click the Disk Cleanup button -- it's just to the right of the Capacity pie graph -- and delete all temporary files.

8.) In your Device Manager, double-click on the IDE ATA/ATAPI Controllers device, and ensure that DMA is enabled for each drive you have connected to the Primary and Secondary controller. Do this by double-clicking on Primary IDE Channel. Then click the Advanced Settings tab. Ensure the Transfer Mode is set to "DMA if available" for both Device 0 and Device 1. Then repeat this process with the Secondary IDE Channel.

9.) Upgrade the cabling. As hard-drive technology improves, the cabling requirements to achieve these performance boosts have become more stringent. Be sure to use 80-wire Ultra-133 cables on all of your IDE devices with the connectors properly assigned to the matching Master/Slave/Motherboard sockets. A single device must be at the end of the cable; connecting a single drive to the middle connector on a ribbon cable will cause signaling problems. With Ultra DMA hard drives, these signaling problems will prevent the drive from performing at its maximum potential. Also, because these cables inherently support "cable select," the location of each drive on the cable is important. For these reasons, the cable is designed so drive positioning is explicitly clear.

10.) Remove all spyware from the computer. Use free programs such as AdAware by Lavasoft or SpyBot Search & Destroy. Once these programs are installed, be sure to check for and download any updates before starting your search. Anything either program finds can be safely removed. Any free software that requires spyware to run will no longer function once the spyware portion has been removed; if your customer really wants the program even though it contains spyware, simply reinstall it. For more information on removing Spyware visit this Web Pro News page.

11.) Remove any unnecessary programs and/or items from Windows Startup routine using the MSCONFIG utility. Here's how: First, click Start, click Run, type MSCONFIG, and click OK. Click the StartUp tab, then uncheck any items you don't want to start when Windows starts. Unsure what some items are? Visit the WinTasks Process Library. It contains known system processes, applications, as well as spyware references and explanations. Or quickly identify them by searching for the filenames using Google or another Web search engine.

12.) Remove any unnecessary or unused programs from the Add/Remove Programs section of the Control Panel.

13.) Turn off any and all unnecessary animations, and disable active desktop. In fact, for optimal performance, turn off all animations. Windows XP offers many different settings in this area. Here's how to do it: First click on the System icon in the Control Panel. Next, click on the Advanced tab. Select the Settings button located under Performance. Feel free to play around with the options offered here, as nothing you can change will alter the reliability of the computer -- only its responsiveness.

14.) If your customer is an advanced user who is comfortable editing their registry, try some of the performance registry tweaks offered at Tweak XP.

15.) Visit Microsoft's Windows update site regularly, and download all updates labeled Critical. Download any optional updates at your discretion.

16.) Update the customer's anti-virus software on a weekly, even daily, basis. Make sure they have only one anti-virus software package installed. Mixing anti-virus software is a sure way to spell disaster for performance and reliability.

17.) Make sure the customer has fewer than 500 type fonts installed on their computer. The more fonts they have, the slower the system will become. While Windows XP handles fonts much more efficiently than did the previous versions of Windows, too many fonts -- that is, anything over 500 -- will noticeably tax the system.

18.) Do not partition the hard drive. Windows XP's NTFS file system runs more efficiently on one large partition. The data is no safer on a separate partition, and a reformat is never necessary to reinstall an operating system. The same excuses people offer for using partitions apply to using a folder instead. For example, instead of putting all your data on the D: drive, put it in a folder called "D drive." You'll achieve the same organizational benefits that a separate partition offers, but without the degradation in system performance. Also, your free space won't be limited by the size of the partition; instead, it will be limited by the size of the entire hard drive. This means you won't need to resize any partitions, ever. That task can be time-consuming and also can result in lost data.

19.) Check the system's RAM to ensure it is operating properly. I recommend using a free program called MemTest86. The download will make a bootable CD or diskette (your choice), which will run 10 extensive tests on the PC's memory automatically after you boot to the disk you created. Allow all tests to run until at least three passes of the 10 tests are completed. If the program encounters any errors, turn off and unplug the computer, remove a stick of memory (assuming you have more than one), and run the test again. Remember, bad memory cannot be repaired, but only replaced.

20.) If the PC has a CD or DVD recorder, check the drive manufacturer's Web site for updated firmware. In some cases you'll be able to upgrade the recorder to a faster speed. Best of all, it's free.

21.) Disable unnecessary services. Windows XP loads a lot of services that your customer most likely does not need. To determine which services you can disable for your client, visit the Black Viper site for Windows XP configurations.

22.) If you're sick of a single Windows Explorer window crashing and then taking the rest of your OS down with it, then follow this tip: open My Computer, click on Tools, then Folder Options. Now click on the View tab. Scroll down to "Launch folder windows in a separate process," and enable this option. You'll have to reboot your machine for this option to take effect.

23.) At least once a year, open the computer's cases and blow out all the dust and debris. While you're in there, check that all the fans are turning properly. Also inspect the motherboard capacitors for bulging or leaks. For more information on this leaking-capacitor phenomena, you can read numerous articles on my site.


Following any of these suggestions should result in noticeable improvements to the performance and reliability of your customers' computers. If you still want to defrag a disk, remember that the main benefit will be to make your data more retrievable in the event of a crashed drive.

Tools And Techniques Of Measurement And Evaluation

VALIDITY:

It is the degree to which a test measures what is suppose to measure. (L. R. Gay)

• Test validity refers to the degree to which the test actually measures what it claims to measure.
• Test validity is also the extent to which inferences, conclusions, and decisions made on the basis of test scores are appropriate and meaningful.
• Validity is the strength of our conclusions, inferences or propositions.
• Validity refers to the accuracy of an assessment -- whether or not it measures what it is supposed to measure.
• If a test is valid, it is almost always reliable.

Measurement of validity:

There are three ways in which validity can be measured.

Type of Validity	Definition	Example/Non-Example
Content	The extent to which the content of the test matches the instructional objectives.	A semester or quarter exam that only includes content covered during the last six weeks is not a valid measure of the course's overall objectives -- it has very low content validity.
Criterion	The extent to which scores on the test are in agreement with (concurrent validity) or predict (predictive validity) an external criterion.	If the end-of-year math tests in 4th grade correlate highly with the statewide math tests, they would have high concurrent validity.
Construct	The extent to which an assessment corresponds to other variables, as predicted by some rationale or theory.	If you can correctly hypothesize that ESOL students will perform differently on a reading test than English-speaking students (because of theory), the assessment may have construct validity.

In order to have confidence that a test is valid (and therefore the inferences we make based on the test scores are valid), all three kinds of validity evidence should be considered. So, does all this talk about validity and reliability mean you need to conduct statistical analyses on your classroom quizzes? No, it doesn’t. (Although you may, on occasion, want to ask one of your peers to verify the content validity of your major assessments.) However, you should be aware of the basic tenets of validity and reliability as you construct your classroom assessments, and you should be able to help parents interpret scores for the standardized exams.

Types of Validity:

There are four types of validity commonly examined in social research.

1. Conclusion validity asks is there a relationship between the program and the observed outcome? Or, in our example, is there a connection between the attendance policy and the increased participation we saw?
2. Internal Validity asks if there is a relationship between the program and the outcome we saw, is it a causal relationship? For example, did the attendance policy cause class participation to increase?
3. Construct validity is the hardest to understand in my opinion. It asks if there is there a relationship between how I operationalized my concepts in this study to the actual causal relationship I'm trying to study/? Or in our example, did our treatment (attendance policy) reflect the construct of attendance, and did our measured outcome - increased class participation - reflect the construct of participation? Overall, we are trying to generalize our conceptualized treatment and outcomes to broader constructs of the same concepts.
4. External validity refers to our ability to generalize the results of our study to other settings. In our example, could we generalize our results to other classrooms?

Characteristics of Validity:

There are following characteristics of validity commonly examined in social research.

1. Content Validity: How well the sample of test items represents the content the test is designed to measure.
2. Predictive validity: How well predictions made by a test are confirmed by later behavior of subjects.
3. Concurrent validity: Similar to predictive validity, but behavior is measured at same time as test.
4. Construct validity: How well a particular test can be shown to measure a particular construct (a theoretical construction about the nature of human behavior, such as intelligence, anxiety, or creativity).
5. Face validity: How closely the test appears to measure what it's supposed to measure.

RELIABILITY:

Reliability is the degree to which a test is consistently measures whatever it measure.

(L. R. Gay)

Test reliability refers to the degree to which a test is consistent and stable in measuring what it is intended to measure. Most simply put, a test is reliable if it is consistent within itself and across time. Reliability is the consistency of your measurement, or the degree to which an instrument measures the same way each time it is used under the same condition with the same subjects. In short, it is the repeatability of your measurement. It is the level of internal consistency or stability of the test over time, or the ability of the test to obtain the same score from the same student at different administrations (given the same conditions). Reliability is usually expressed as some sort of correlation coefficient. Values may range from .00 (low reliability) to 1.00 (perfect reliability). Reliability refers to the extent to which assessments are consistent. Just as we enjoy having reliable cars (cars that start every time we need them), we strive to have reliable, consistent instruments to measure student achievement. Another way to think of reliability is to imagine a kitchen scale. If you weigh five pounds of potatoes in the morning, and the scale is reliable, the same scale should register five pounds for the potatoes an hour later (unless, of course, you peeled and cooked them). Likewise, instruments such as classroom tests and national standardized exams should be reliable – it should not make any difference whether a student takes the assessment in the morning or afternoon; one day or the next. Another measure of reliability is the internal consistency of the items. For example, if you create a quiz to measure students’ ability to solve quadratic equations, you should be able to assume that if a student gets an item correct, he or she will also get other, similar items correct.  The following table outlines three common reliability measures.

Type of Reliability	How to Measure
Stability or Test-Retest	Give the same assessment twice, separated by days, weeks, or months. Reliability is stated as the correlation between scores at Time 1 and Time 2.
Alternate Form	Create two forms of the same test (vary the items slightly).  Reliability is stated as correlation between scores of Test 1 and Test 2.
Internal  Consistency	Compare one half of the test to the other half.  Or, use methods such as Kuder-Richardson Formula 20 (KR20) or Cronbach's Alpha.

Estimation of Reliability:

There are two ways by which reliability is usually estimated

1. Test/Retest: Test/retest is the more conservative method to estimate reliability. The idea is that you should get the same score on test 1 as you do on test 2.

The three main components to this method are as follows:

o    Implement your measurement instrument at two separate times for each subject

o    Compute the correlation between the two separate measurements;

o    Assume there is no change in the underlying condition (or trait you are trying to measure) between test 1 and test 2.

2. Internal Consistency: Internal consistency estimates reliability by grouping questions in a questionnaire that measure the same concept. For example, you could write two sets of three questions that measure the same concept (say class participation) and after collecting the responses, run a correlation between those two groups of three questions to determine if your instrument is reliably measuring that concept.

The primary difference between test/retest and internal consistency estimates of reliability is that test/retest involves two administrations of the measurement instrument, whereas the internal consistency method involves only one administration of that instrument.

The Relationship of Reliability and Validity

In order for assessments to be sound, they must be free of bias and distortion. Reliability and validity are two concepts that are important for defining and measuring bias and distortion. Test validity is requisite to test reliability. If a test is not valid, then reliability is moot. In other words, if a test is not valid there is no point in discussing reliability because test validity is required before reliability can be considered in any meaningful way. Likewise, if a test is not reliable it is also not valid.

OBJECTIVITY:

Objectivity is the extent to which the instrument is free from personal error (personal bias) that is subjectivity on the part of the error. (C.V Good)

The objectivity of test refers to the degree to which equally competent scores obtained the same results. (Norman E. Gronlund)

ACCURACY:

A term used to describe the size of the relative error.                                      (C.V Good)

ADECUACY:

A characteristic evidenced by its sufficient length to sample widely the behaviour it is designed to measure.                                                                                         (C.V Good)

Methods of Data Recording

The assessment techniques in this category may be used with any of the ongoing student activities as well as with the quizzes and tests. The appropriateness of the technique for the purpose intended should act as a guide.

• Anecdotal Records

Anecdotal records refer to written descriptions of student progress that a teacher keeps on a day- to-day basis.

A teacher may decide to keep anecdotal records on students' ability to manipulate materials at assessment stations, to work in a group, to work in a test-taking situation, or to complete a project or a written report. There are situations where a teacher will keep anecdotal comments on the development of specific skills related to instructional objectives, on the behavior of a student, or on the attitude expressed or demonstrated by a student. Anecdotal records are as flexible as a teacher wishes to make them.

• Observation Checklists

Observation checklists are lists of criteria a teacher determines are important to observe in students at a particular time. Beside each of the criteria, a notation is made as to whether that particular criterion was observed.

Checklists can be used to record the presence or the absence of knowledge, particular skills, learning processes, or attitudes. They may be used to record such information in relation to written assignments, presentations, classroom performance, test-taking behaviors, individual or group work, fulfillment of the requirements of a contract, self- and peer-assessment of work, or completion of an assessment station. How a teacher wishes to use an observation checklist depends upon the type of student progress information required.

• Rating Scales

Rating scales have the same usage as observation checklists. The essential difference lies in what is indicated. Observation checklists record the presence or absence of a particular knowledge item, skill, or process. Rating scales record the degree to which they are found or the quality of the performance.

Anecdotal Records Description

An anecdotal record is a written description of the observations made on students. These records are usually collected in a specific book or folder.

Evaluation Context

• Formative

The very act of recording observations may serve to alert you to some aspect of a student's learning or attitude that may need immediate attention; for example, an outburst caused by frustration.

• Summative

Since the anecdotal record concentrates on describing incidents of student performance over a period of time, the sequence of anecdotes can serve as a record of the student's development towards long term goals such as lifelong learning, healthy self-concept, cooperative learning, skill development, work/study habits, knowledge attainment, and interest/attitude.

• Diagnostic

Through the regular spotlighting of a student's performance, areas needing special attention may emerge. Examples include communication skills and personal development. Your anecdotal records may start to show that Billy is consistently having trouble in expressing coherent thoughts. As a consequence, you may decide to investigate the causes of this behavior more thoroughly.

Using Technique to Best Advantage

Entries must be made with appropriate frequency. They should eventually encompass all the students, although some students may warrant more entries than others. Anecdotal records offer you a way of recording aspects of your students' learning that might not be identified by other techniques.

Guidelines for use

• What to write

First, you write a description of the incident in an objective way by describing what actually happened. Then make further notes on your analysis of the situation, any comments you want to make, and any questions you pose to yourself that may guide further observations.

• When to use

For many teachers, the time when students are engaged in writing offers an opportunity to demonstrate that teachers are writing, too. You can use a portion of your writing time for recording your anecdotes. Teachers who do not have these opportunities may use times when students are engaged in independent work. In program areas such as physical education and home economics, there are parts of the period when students change clothes or tidy up equipment. You might be able to use these times for recording entries. Whichever scheme is chosen, it should offer regular opportunities for entering observations.

• How to record

Various formats have been developed. A notebook with each entry dated offers a powerful chronological record; although it is sometimes difficult locate a particular student. Alphabetized notebooks, looking like large address books, are available and they permit easy reference by student name. Alternatively, a loose leaf format may be used so that the entries may be entered chronologically, and at the end of the year may be reformatted by student name. One further idea: modern technology has provided us with conveniences for recording and storing student progress data that range from electronic student data files available on various software programs to removable self-stick notes that can be used to record the anecdote and then be affixed to the student record.

Example:          No example is required for the open-ended, unstructured anecdotal record. The examples that follow are formats for anecdotal records designed to give you ideas as to how to set up this type of data recording method. Keep in mind these are only examples.

Using the Information for Student Evaluation

While the entries themselves are usually not shown to the student or the parents/guardians, they can form a valuable basis for communication. They allow you to flesh out your year-end reports on the more holistic dimensions of student growth.

Observation Checklists Description

The observation checklist is a listing of specific concepts, skills, processes, or attitudes, the presence or absence of which you wish to record. If the observation checklist is used relatively frequently and over time, a longitudinal profile of a student is assembled and ultimately evaluated.

Evaluation Context

The observation checklist is most appropriately used in situations where you wish to assess your students' abilities, attitudes, or performance in process areas. For example, it can assess communication skills, cooperative learning skills, extent of participation, interest in the topic, and psychomotor skills.

Using Technique to Best Advantage

Used on a single occasion, the observation checklist can provide formative evaluation information for the situation in which it is used For example, to learn how effective students are when working in groups, a checklist to observe them in a single group session can be used. This will provide information to guide future instruction.

Observation checklists are most useful when collected over time and used summatively or diagnostically. Once you decide to use observation checklists in your evaluation plan, you must use them systematically. They are misleading when used sporadically.

Guidelines for Use

Usually the observation checklist is used during class time. Therefore, it must be simple. The most efficient way to collect data is to record learning progress on four or five students at the same time. If you choose to observe four students per lesson and you have 28 students, you will cover the class once every seven lessons. At the end of the term or unit, you will have several observations on every student. If your class is working in groups, do one group every day. If not, use your seating plan to identify groups of students sitting in the same area. If you choose students alphabetically, you may find that your eyes have to cover too much of the room in order to encompass the selected students.

• Before the unit or course begins, develop an estimate of what would constitute appropriate learning outcomes for your students. If you intend to use the information for making criterion-referenced judgments, decide on what your criteria will be. You may wish to develop minimum criteria (e.g., "six of the eight behaviors must be observed over the course of the unit"), or you may wish to develop different criteria levels for what would constitute excellent, satisfactory, or unsatisfactory work. Decisions on criteria should be made before the observation sequence begins.
• Before every class, enter the names of the students, the date, and the activity. During class, pay special attention to the selected group so that you build an impression of their level of competence or execution of the skills, processes, or attitudes you wish to record.

Recording options: You may simply mark an entry on the item's first appearance and leave it at that, or you may record an item's every appearance (e.g., ). If you develop some measure of degree to describe the item (e.g., !, ?, or X), you have transformed your observation checklist into a rating scale. This is a characteristic of rating scales and checklists that gives you more flexibility. Make sure you record the date and the class on every observation checklist you use.

• After class, annotate the checklist sheet with any appropriate thoughts. For example, "Fire drill interrupted the group activity - recorded instances are therefore lower than I anticipated." Ä File the checklist sheet with the others so that the class set is available for evaluation at the end of the course or unit. Large envelopes are useful here.

Example: The example checklists are designed to give you ideas as to how to set up this type of data recording technique. Keep in mind these are only examples.

Using the Information for Student Evaluation

Arrange the sheets into piles according to the student groups. Read them all over once or twice to develop a feeling for the overall class picture. For criterion-referenced judgments, refer to the criterion levels you made initially. For norm-referenced judgments, estimate where each student lies relative to the others in the class and make your judgment. If you have looked for very general or broad items, be careful not to over interpret your data - for example, "On these aspects of the course Kim seems to be performing a little bit more consistently than most of the students." This may be about the level of sophistication that is possible, depending on how you constructed the instrument. For self-referenced judgments, all the checklists on one particular student can be studied, providing a measure of progress over the span of the unit or course. This is one of the most powerful uses of the checklist.

• Where you can, start with an existing checklist and modify it according to your needs.
• Choose items that relate to the intended learning outcomes of the unit. If you wish to use checklists in several courses and they have many overlapping items, develop a master list and eliminate those items that are inappropriate for the specific unit or course.
• Choose items that you can observe or reasonably infer. If an item is too vague (e.g., interest in the subject), you may not be consistent throughout the term in your estimation and recording of it.
• Keep the list of items manageable. Twelve is about the maximum.
• Keep the language of the items simple and jargon-free. In that way you can use the checklists at parent-teacher or student-teacher interviews.

Variants

Develop checklists that detail one particular series of components. For example, a checklist on the correct operation of a microscope may be useful in minimum competency situations where something just has to be done correctly.

As previously mentioned, the observation checklist shares many characteristics with the rating scale. This is an advantage that can be a time-saver for you.

Rating Scales Description

Rating scales are measuring instruments that allow representation of the extent to which specific concepts, skills, processes, or attitudes exist in students and their work.

Evaluation Context

Rating scales enable the teacher to record student performance on a wide range of skills and attitudes. They are particularly useful in situations where the student performance can be described along a continuum, such as participation in a debate or skill in preparing a microscope slide.

Guidelines for Use

As the rating scale is usually used during class time, it must be simple to use.

• Developing the rating scale

Once you decide upon the activity you wish to rate, break it up into its constituent parts. Make the parts as specific as possible so as to increase the scale's reliability. For example, instead of globally rating "performance in debates," decide on what performance criteria you wish to observe in the student. Perhaps "states argument," "demonstrates background preparation," "responds to opposition arguments relevantly" might together give a less inferential picture of the student's performance than the rating on the global behavior alone.

The next task is to develop the scale points. You might use the old stand-by: "very good/good/ average/poor/very poor," or you can develop more descriptive scale points. For the criterion mentioned above, "states argument," you could choose to use points based upon how forceful the student was: "very forceful/forceful/average/ diffident/very diffident."

• Before the unit or course begins

If you intend to use the information for making criterion-referenced judgments, decide on what your criteria will be. You may wish to develop minimum criteria such as, "six of the eight behaviors must be rated at the satisfactory level or higher over the course of the unit." Or you may wish to develop different criteria levels for what would constitute excellent, satisfactory, or unsatisfactory work.

• Before every class

Enter the names of the students, the date, and the activity. This will usually be governed by the activity being rated. If Peter and Petra are facing off in today's debate, then theirs are the names entered.

• Recording

As you form an impression of student behavior on each criterion, mark the point on the continuum.

• After class

Examine the individual criteria and decide on an overall rating for each student on the total behavior being rated. File the rating sheet with the others so that the class set is available as a record. Large envelopes are useful here.

Example: In the first example provided, the full sheet on 'Performance in Debates' is developed. The other examples that follow are designed to give you ideas as to how to set up this type of data recording method. Keep in mind these are only examples.

Two Variants

Rating scales have many variants and any book on measurement will offer examples. Two variants are described here.

• Self-evaluation

Rating scales are very useful in allowing students to perform self-evaluation on their own work. Present the student with a rating scale that covers the aspects of the unit or project which you wish him or her to self-evaluate. Examples may be the amount of effort expended in research, the amount of effort expended on initial organization, the extent to which the student reflected on the initial organization, the amount of reorganization, or the effort spent on writing. The student's ratings on the five-point scale can form a useful starting-point for teacher- student dialogue. 

• Number line

The number line is a variant that is particularly useful with pre-reading students. On a long piece of paper, draw a horizontal line and mark off five to ten intervals. On the extreme left- hand mark, draw a sad face, at the mid-point draw a neutral face, and at the right-hand mark, draw a happy face. Mount the number line on the wall at a suitable height. The student then places the left palm on the sad face and, in response to a question (such as "How much did you like that story?"), positions the right palm accordingly. If the story was not a success, then both hands overlap on the unhappy face. By training the students to pass by the number line fairly quickly, you can obtain rapid feedback on the question you pose. With experience, more sophisticated questions can be asked. Here are examples from a unit on estimation. "When you guessed the number of peas in the pea pod that I showed you, how sure were you of your answer?" "Now, when you guessed the number of Smarties in the bottle, how sure were you?"

Characteristics of a Good Measuring Instrument

VALIDITY : First and foremost a test must be valid i.e. must measure what it claim to measure. It refers to validity of assessment. If a test is valid it is almost reliable.

MEASUREMENT OF VALIDITY : There are three ways to measure validity.

Validity refers to the degree to which a study accurately reflects or assesses the specific concept that the researcher is attempting to measure.

CRITERION VALIDITY : Criterion related validity, also referred to as instrumental validity, is used to demonstrate the accuracy of a measure or procedure by comparing it with another measure or procedure which has been demonstrated to be valid.
For example, imagine a hands-on driving test has been shown to be an accurate test of driving skills. By comparing the scores on the written driving test with the scores from the hands-on driving test, the written test can be validated by using a criterion related strategy in which the hands-on driving test is compared to the written test.


CONSTRUCT VALIDITY : Construct validity seeks agreement between a theoretical concept and a specific measuring device or procedure. For example, a researcher inventing a new IQ test might spend a great deal of time attempting to "define" intelligence in order to reach an acceptable level of construct validity.


CONTENT VALIDITY : Content validity is illustrated using the following examples: Researchers aim to study mathematical learning and create a survey to test for mathematical skill. If these researchers only tested for multiplication and then drew conclusions from that survey, their study would not show content validity because it excludes other mathematical functions.

Environmental Education

Environmental Education

When environmental education is incorporated into the school curriculum, students:

·         learn about the environment

·         develop skills to investigate and solve issues in the environment

·         acquire attitudes of care and concern for the environment

·         adopt behaviors and practices which protect the environment, and

·         understand the principles of ecologically sustainable development

Schools can use their own School Grounds and the way they use and manage Resources as a context for student learning. This makes the school curriculum more integrated with the daily lives of the students, increasing understanding and relevance.

ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

Environmental education programs provide resources for classroom teachers, outdoor educators, club leaders, and others to teach students of all ages about our environment.  Students of all ages gain an understanding of the environmental challenges we face and how to meet those challenges.

Why Recycle

Recycling is good for the environment

It takes less energy to create new items from recycled materials than it does to create new products from raw materials. Mining minerals and milling trees into lumber requires vast amounts of energy to create products. Recycling entails reusing materials as many times as possible to conserve natural resources.

Recycling is good for communities

Extracting materials from mines or forests is done far from the place where goods are consumed; however recycling starts in your own home. Gathering recyclables, and reprocessing them into feedstock for future products is done locally by people who live, work, and spend money in their own communities.

Recycling reduces pollution

Burning garbage or throwing waste into landfills produces byproducts that pollute the environment. Runoff from landfills and metals like mercury find their way into streams, rivers and oceans, fish, and eventually into human beings, harming our health.

Food Contamination and Foodborne Illness Prevention

Food becomes contaminated through a variety of mechanisms. Some things that can contribute to foodborne illness are:

• inadequate hand washing
• cross-contamination
• storage and cooking temperatures
• contamination of food by animal waste

Hand Washing

• Pathogens can be introduced into food from infected humans who handle the food without thoroughly washing their hands.
• These pathogens are thus transferred from trace amounts of fecal matter present on hands to the food.
• Hand Hygiene: Wash Your Hands! Hand washing and Hand Hygiene information

Cross-Contamination

• Food and kitchen tools and surfaces may become contaminated from raw food products (i.e., meat and poultry).
• Microbes can be transferred from one food to another by using the same knife, cutting board or other utensil without washing the surface or utensil in between uses.
• A food that is fully cooked can become re-contaminated if it touches other raw foods or drippings from raw foods that contain pathogens.
• Prevent Cross-Contamination
  Cross-contamination is the physical movement or transfer of harmful bacteria from one person, object or place to another.

Storage and Cooking Temperatures

• Many pathogens need to multiply to a larger number before enough are present in food to cause disease.
• In general, refrigeration or freezing prevents virtually all bacteria from growing.
• If food is heated sufficiently, parasites, viruses and most bacteria are killed.
• How Temperatures Affect Food Food Safety and Inspection Service United States Department of Agriculture. Attention: Non-MDH link

Contamination of Food by Animal Waste

Many foodborne microbes are present in healthy animals raised for food.

• Meat and poultry may become contaminated during slaughter by small amounts of intestinal contents.
• Fresh fruits and vegetables can be contaminated if they are washed with water that is contaminated by animal manure or human sewage.

Toxicity in Food -

Environmental contamination of food

Substances that are either real or potential risks to health may enter the food supply as a result of contamination of the environment  But, in terms of the number of people affected, environmental contamination is less of a problem than illness caused by food poisoning from harmful microorganisms in food (see 'How to Avoid Food Poisoning').

For many environmental contaminants, health authorities recommend maximum acceptable levels that are considered to be safe in food. It is illegal for foods containing higher levels to be sold although the occasional consumption of slightly higher amounts is unlikely to be harmful. Foods are monitored to check that they comply with the recommendations. Foods that contain more than the permitted amounts of the contaminants being monitored are withdrawn from sale. The effectiveness of this depends on the extent of monitoring.

In general, the level of environmental contaminants in our food complies with the limits recommended by health authorities. However, because of the uncertainty in establishing exactly what is a safe level for many of these contaminants, it is in the interests of our general health to consume as wide a variety of foods as possible. By doing this, the chances of eating large amounts of a contaminated food are minimized. Continued and extensive surveillance and control are needed.

'Heavy metals'

The common environmental contaminants of greatest concern in food are the so-called 'heavy metals', most notably cadmium, lead and mercury.

Mercury

Almost all of the mercury in food occurs in seafood. A dramatic instance of mercury poisoning occurred in the Minimata Bay area in Japan. Fish and shellfish that were heavily contaminated by industrial waste caused poisoning in many of the people who ate them, resulting in damage to the central nervous system and in some instances death. Surveys of the levels of mercury and other heavy metals in food are regularly carried out and have shown that generally the levels are below the maximum amounts permitted by health authorities. Occasionally, higher levels are detected and the food withdrawn from sale.

Lead

Lead occurs widely in the environment and it can enter our bodies through drinking water and the air we breathe, as well as through food. Children are the group at greatest risk, because even at levels below those that produce the usual signs of poisoning, lead can cause behavioural abnormalities. The levels of lead that cause these effects are uncertain so it is difficult to estimate what amount is 'safe'. In some areas, particularly where there is heavy lead pollution in the air from leaded petrol, lead levels may be hazardous for children. Legislation to limit the total environmental lead burden is being enacted in many countries.

Cadmium

Cadmium is present at very low levels in a wide variety of foods. Poisoning due to cadmium in food is rare. The upper 'acceptable' limit for cadmium in food recommended by the World Health Organisation is generally complied with. The kidneys of animals are generally higher in cadmium than are other foods. Contamination of rice, soya bean and seafood with cadmium from local industrial and mining operations has caused cadmium poisoning.

Pesticides and industrial chemicals

Two very persistent environmental contaminants are the pesticide DDT and PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls), which have been used in electrical transformers, plastics and paints. DDT and PCBs are not easily degraded in the environment and can concentrate in the fatty tissues of many organisms as they move up the food chain. Recent surveys in Australia have not detected the presence of PCBs in food. DDT has been found in many foods but the amounts are such that the total daily intake of DDT is within the acceptable' upper limit recommended by the World Health Organisation.

HOW TO AVOID FOOD POISONING

PERSONAL HYGIENE

1. Wash your hands before preparing food.
2. Do not smoke or comb hair when preparing food.
3. Cover any cut or pimple with dressings.
4. Do not handle pets when preparing food.
5. When tasting food do not return licked utensils to the food.

PRECAUTIONS WHEN PREPARING FOODS

1. Keep all cooking utensils and surfaces clean. Discard cracked and chipped utensils and crockery.
2. Do not use the same knives, chopping boards etc, for both raw and cooked food without first washing them.
3. Keep food as cold as possible.
4. Do not store raw food where it can contaminate cooked food. Water or blood from raw meat or fish can cause contamination by dripping onto cooked food stored below.
5. Heat food as rapidly and cook as thoroughly as possible. Remember the inside temperature can be much lower than that on the surface.
6. If the food is not to be eaten immediately after cooking, cool it as quickly as possible and keep it in the refrigerator until it is ready to be served or reheated. Large pieces of food should be sliced into smaller pieces to allow it to cool more rapidly.
7. Do not keep food warm; keep it either hot or cold.
8. When reheating food, heat quickly and thoroughly, so that even the middle of the food pieces have reached a high temperature.
9. Handle cooked food as little as possible; use serving tongs etc.
10. Discard any food that has gone 'off' (off-odour, mouldy, slimy). Storing at lower temperatures will not stop further deterioration.